By Suzanne Evans
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Originally published: as Forgotten crimes. Chicago, Ill.: Ivan R. Dee, 2004.
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Hitlers Forgotten Victims: The Holocaust and the Disabled
By Suzanne Evans
Edition: illustrated
Published by Tempus Publishing, 2007
ISBN 0752441752, 9780752441757
224 pages
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Friday, February 27, 2009
Hitlers willige Vollstrecker
By Klaus Kochmann, Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
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Lizenz des Siedler-Verl., Berlin. - Literaturverz. S. 687 - 708
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Hitlers willige Vollstrecker: Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust
By Klaus Kochmann, Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
Translated by Klaus Kochmann
Published by Goldmann, 2000
ISBN 3442150884, 9783442150885
728 pages
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References from web pages
newshour Online: Prof. Daniel GoldhagenDavid Gergen, editor at large of "us News & World Report" engages Daniel Goldhagen, professor of government at Harvard University and author of the ...www.pbs.org/newshour/gergen/goldhagen.html
Hausarbeiten.de: Daniel J. Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker ...Über das Buch "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker - Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust" · Konzepte des kulturellen Wandels. ...www.hausarbeiten.de/faecher/vorschau/47181.html
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker (Buchtipp)Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust (Buchtipp)www.dieterwunderlich.de/Goldhagen_vollstrecker.htm
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker - Ganz ...Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker – Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust. Inhalt:. Wie konnte es zum Holocaust kommen? ...www.humanist.de/kultur/literatur/religion/goldhagen.html
GLASNOST Berlin - Michael Czollek: Rezension zu: Daniel Jonah ...Michael Czollek. Der Balken im Auge. Rezension zu: Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker". Nie geraten die Deutschen so außer sich, ...www.glasnost.de/autoren/czollek/goldhagen.htmlmore »
"Hitlers willige Vollstrecker" oder "Ganz normale Männer"1. Hanifle Thomas. Proseminar aus Politischer Theorie/Ideengeschichte. Theorien über Neorassismus und Antiislamismus. "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker" oder ...content.grin.com/data/6/1214.pdf
Hitlers willige VollstreckerDaniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitlers. willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche. und der Holocaust. Aus dem Amerikanischen. von Klaus Kochmann ...www.sachbuchforschung.de/SBDB/pix/PDF/Goldhagen-Hitler-Inhalt.pdf
horus 1/1997 - Bücher - Zeitschriften ... - Daniel Jonah Goldhagen ...Suche. Suchen Sie in horus aktuell, unserem Newsletter, und horus online, unserer Vereinszeitschrift:. Suchbegriff:. Geben Sie bitte einen Suchbegriff ein: ...www.dvbs-online.de/horus/1997-1-2128.htm
Die Deutschen - ein Volk von Tätern? : Zur historisch-politischen ...... erschienenen Buch des Harvard-Dozenten Daniel Jonah Goldhagen „Hitlers willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust" einläutete. ...www.fes.de/fulltext/historiker/00015.htm
Betrifft GoldhagenBetrifft Goldhagen - das Buch zur Debatte. Kein anderes Buch zur deutschen Zeitgeschichte hat die Deutschen so sehr beschäftigt wie "Hitlers willige ...www.martin-koett.de/goldhagen1.htm« less
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Lizenz des Siedler-Verl., Berlin. - Literaturverz. S. 687 - 708
More details
Hitlers willige Vollstrecker: Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust
By Klaus Kochmann, Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
Translated by Klaus Kochmann
Published by Goldmann, 2000
ISBN 3442150884, 9783442150885
728 pages
Add to my shared library
Write review
References from web pages
newshour Online: Prof. Daniel GoldhagenDavid Gergen, editor at large of "us News & World Report" engages Daniel Goldhagen, professor of government at Harvard University and author of the ...www.pbs.org/newshour/gergen/goldhagen.html
Hausarbeiten.de: Daniel J. Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker ...Über das Buch "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker - Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust" · Konzepte des kulturellen Wandels. ...www.hausarbeiten.de/faecher/vorschau/47181.html
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker (Buchtipp)Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust (Buchtipp)www.dieterwunderlich.de/Goldhagen_vollstrecker.htm
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker - Ganz ...Daniel Jonah Goldhagen: Hitlers willige Vollstrecker – Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust. Inhalt:. Wie konnte es zum Holocaust kommen? ...www.humanist.de/kultur/literatur/religion/goldhagen.html
GLASNOST Berlin - Michael Czollek: Rezension zu: Daniel Jonah ...Michael Czollek. Der Balken im Auge. Rezension zu: Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker". Nie geraten die Deutschen so außer sich, ...www.glasnost.de/autoren/czollek/goldhagen.htmlmore »
"Hitlers willige Vollstrecker" oder "Ganz normale Männer"1. Hanifle Thomas. Proseminar aus Politischer Theorie/Ideengeschichte. Theorien über Neorassismus und Antiislamismus. "Hitlers willige Vollstrecker" oder ...content.grin.com/data/6/1214.pdf
Hitlers willige VollstreckerDaniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitlers. willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche. und der Holocaust. Aus dem Amerikanischen. von Klaus Kochmann ...www.sachbuchforschung.de/SBDB/pix/PDF/Goldhagen-Hitler-Inhalt.pdf
horus 1/1997 - Bücher - Zeitschriften ... - Daniel Jonah Goldhagen ...Suche. Suchen Sie in horus aktuell, unserem Newsletter, und horus online, unserer Vereinszeitschrift:. Suchbegriff:. Geben Sie bitte einen Suchbegriff ein: ...www.dvbs-online.de/horus/1997-1-2128.htm
Die Deutschen - ein Volk von Tätern? : Zur historisch-politischen ...... erschienenen Buch des Harvard-Dozenten Daniel Jonah Goldhagen „Hitlers willige Vollstrecker. Ganz gewöhnliche Deutsche und der Holocaust" einläutete. ...www.fes.de/fulltext/historiker/00015.htm
Betrifft GoldhagenBetrifft Goldhagen - das Buch zur Debatte. Kein anderes Buch zur deutschen Zeitgeschichte hat die Deutschen so sehr beschäftigt wie "Hitlers willige ...www.martin-koett.de/goldhagen1.htm« less
SetListSectionVisible('web_references_h', 0)
Hitler's Willing Executioners
By Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
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This groundbreaking international bestseller lays to rest many myths about the Holocaust: that Germans were ignorant of the mass destruction of Jews, that the killers were all SS men, and that those who slaughtered Jews did so reluctantly. Hitler's Willing Executioners provides conclusive evidence that the extermination of European Jewry engaged the energies and enthusiasm of tens of thousands of ordinary Germans. Goldhagen reconstructs the climate of "eliminationist anti-Semitism" that made Hitler's pursuit of his genocidal goals possible and the radical persecution of the Jews during the 1930s popular. Drawing on a wealth of unused archival materials, principally the testimony of the killers themselves, Goldhagen takes us into the killing fields where Germans voluntarily hunted Jews like animals, tortured them wantonly, and then posed cheerfully for snapshots with their victims. From mobile killing units, to the camps, to the death marches, Goldhagen shows how ordinary Germans, nurtured in a society where Jews were seen as unalterable evil and dangerous, willingly followed their beliefs to their logical conclusion."Hitler's Willing Executioner's is an original, indeed brilliant contribution to the...literature on the Holocaust."--New York Review of Books"The most important book ever published about the Holocaust...Eloquently written, meticulously documented, impassioned...A model of moral and scholarly integrity."--Philadelphia Inquirer
More details
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust
By Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
Edition: reprint, illustrated
Published by Vintage Books, 1997
ISBN 0679772685, 9780679772682
634 pages
Add to my shared library
Write review
Contents
Reconceiving Central Aspects of the Holocaust
3
Holocaust , antisemitism , Jews
UNDERSTANDING GERMAN ANTISEMITISM
25
cognitive models , dimensional analysis , semitism
The Evolution of Eliminationist Antisemitism
49
Jews , racial antisemitism , Jewish emancipation
20 other sections not shown
Search in this book
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10 pages matching hitler,s holocaust in this book
Page 71
Where's the rest of this book?
Reviews
Reviewed May 2006
document.getElementById('review0_ti').className +=' pseudolink';
Wow - very intense book, I only read maybe 6 pages before crying then having nightmares. This book along with "Ordinary Men" is the focus of a paper as well as a quiz for class (I got 100%). the ... more » two authors battle back and forth in their respective afterwards.In a nutshell Browning feels that Germans killed because of peer pressure and felt pretty bad about it later. Goldburg feels that Germans killed because they wanted to, were given permission and didn't feel bad about it later. Both authors agreed that antisemitism played a part. Goldburg feels that it played a much bigger role than Browning does. both men also agreed that ordinary men and women did kill with little encouragement. The debate is healthy, an still waging in the Holocaust field of study and amongst Germans. A good argument can be made for each book. 7-2006 « less
SetTextSectionVisible('review0_h', 0)
User Review [Flag as inappropriate] View sgerbic's library
An explosive work that shatters many of ...
document.getElementById('review1_ti').className +=' pseudolink';
... the assumptions and commonly accepted myths concerning the Holocaust. Goldhagen (Government and Social Studies/Harvard) offers irrefutable proof that will force us to reconsider our previous ... more » understanding of the Nazis' genocidal project. Traditional explorations tended to accept at face value the usual defenses offered by the Germans: Either they did not know of the genocide or they were compelled to participate against their will. In this exhaustively documented and richly researched work, Goldhagen documents conclusively that the people who actively participated in the extermination program were indeed ""ordinary Germans,"" neither fanatical Nazis nor members of the dreaded SS. By carefully studying the personnel of the death camps and police battalions, the author reveals that they were not forced to participate, nor were they brainwashed by the Nazi regime. One of the book's many virtues is that it insists on placing antisemitism in a larger context; it permeated all segments of German society, including the proletariat, the professions, and the churches. Goldhagen thus offers a new conceptual framework for thinking about the Holocaust. Its documentation will make refutation nearly impossible. Further strengthening bis case, Goldhagen focuses on hitherto neglected aspects of the Holocaust: the police battalions and the death marches that occurred toward the end of the war. Both aspects support his thesis that the genocidal plans of the Nazis found an eagerly receptive audience in Germany. By comparing Nazi policies toward Jews, Slavs, and the infirm (the Euthanasia Program was denounced and resisted by the Germans), we can more clearly see and understand the enormity of the crime and the complicity of ""ordinary Germans."" A profoundly revolutionary work that demands a reexamination of the central moral problem of the 20th century. « less
SetTextSectionVisible('review1_h', 0)
Kirkus Reviews Copyright (c) VNU Business Media, Inc.
Was Slaughter of Jews Embraced by Germans? HITLER'S WILLING EXECUTIONERS Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust By Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A basic question posed by students of the Holocaust has to do ...
nytimes.com
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - Review: Hitler's Willing Executioners ... Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). 622 pp. ...
jhu.edu
'Hitler's Willing Executioners': An Exchange - The New York Review ... An article by Gordon A. Craig from The New York Review of Books, May 23, 1996.
nybooks.commore »
Review -- 'Hitler's Willing Executioners' This World Wide Web site is the on-line version of the international student-produced magazine, AN END TO INTOLERANCE, for June 1997.
iearn.org
Goldhagen Review by Carl Schulkin. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. 622 pp. $30.00 ...
schulkin.org
H-Net Review: Carl Schulkinon Hitler's Willing ... Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. x + 622 pp. Illustrations, maps, bibliographical ...
h-net.org
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust Daniel Goldhagen Vintage Paperback, $16, 634 pp. James Scott of Yale set the tone o.
encyclopedia.com
Book Review: excerpt from Hitler's Willing Executioners from Goldhagen Reporting on alarming increase of anti-Semitism in Germany. How to guarantee religious and human rights for all Germans.
freedommag.org
Hitler's Willing Executioners (review) Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust , by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. New York: Knopf, 1996. x+622 pages. $30.00. ...
ihr.org« less
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References from web pages
Hitler's Willing Executioners - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Jump to: navigation, search. Hitler's Willing Executioners (1996) is a history book by Daniel Goldhagen which posits ...en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler's_Willing_Executioners
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary ...190. Modern Judaism. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans. and the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). 622 pp. ...mj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/2/190.pdf
Vintage Catalog Hitler's Willing Executioners by Daniel Jonah ...... that follow are intended to enhance your group's reading of Daniel Jonah Goldhagen's Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. ...www.randomhouse.com/vintage/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=0679772685&view=rg
KONRAD KWIETKONRAD KWIET. “Hitler’s Willing Executioners” and “Ordinary Germans”. Some Comments on Goldhagen’s Ideas. 1. Much has been said about Daniel Jonah Goldhagen ...web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/01_kwiet.pdf
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust ...Hitlers Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust - Critical Essay from Commonweal in Reference provided free by Find Articlesfindarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_/ai_58400665more »
PEP Web - Hitler's Willing Executioners(1998). Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 46:650-653. Hitler's Willing Executioners. Barbara Stimmel Author Information ...www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=APA.046.0650A
JSTOR: Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the ...Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Pp. 619. Cloth $30.00. The dustjacket of Daniel Jonah ...links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0149-7952(199610)19%3A3%3C578%3AHWEOGA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
Aspects of the Goldhagen DebateAspects of the Goldhagen Debate. Central to this debate is Daniel Goldhagen’s work Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary ...www.aihgs.com/images/Goldhagen.pdf
An Examination of: Hitler's Willing Executioners; Ordinary Germans ...However, in Daniel Goldhagen's 1995 book Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, the author proposes that there is something ...www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/bat101/TietjenGoldhagenRev.htm
Robert Kunathintertitle.gif (2406 bytes) Volume 5.2 1997 ISSN 1048-3721 This page was last updated on 03/15/99. contents · Home · E-mail ...www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-2/kunath.html« less
SetListSectionVisible('web_references_h', 0)
References from books
Curriculum Development in the Postmodern Eraby Patrick Slattery - Education - 2006 - 330 pages
In this much-anticipated and thoroughly updated edition, noted curriculum studies scholar PatrickSlattery tackles these and other issues to reflect on the current state of...
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Introduction to International Relations: Theories and Approachesby Robert H. Jackson, Georg Sorensen - Political Science - 2007 - 376 pages
The book focuses on the main theoretical traditions - Realism, Liberalism, International Society, andtheories of international political economy.
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Framing Europe: Attitudes to European Integration in Germany, Spain, and the ...by Juan Díez Medrano - 2003 - 332 pages
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
show more »
Other editions
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945) - 1996 - 622 pages
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - History - 1996 - 622 pages
"--New York Review of Books"The most important book ever published about theHolocaust.
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - History - 1997 - 634 pages
"--New York Review of Books "The most important book ever published about theHolocaust.
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
show more »
References from scholarly works
Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration ofInhumanitiesAlbert Bandura - 1999 - Personality and Social Psychology Review
Toward a Theory of Teacher CommunityPamela Grossman, Samuel Wineburg And, Stephen Woolworth - 2001 - The Teachers College Record
The Political Economy of Hatred*Edward L Glaeser - 2005 - Quarterly Journal of Economics
Selective Moral Disengagement in the Exercise of Moral AgencyALBERT BANDURA - 2002 - Journal of Moral Education
Collective Memory and Cultural Constraint: Holocaust Myth and ...Jeffrey K Olick, Daniel Levy - 1997 - American Sociological Review
Key terms
Jozefow, Einsatzgruppen, genocidal, Holocaust, Helmbrechts, Nazism, Nazi Germany, Kristallnacht, Einsatzkommandos, Majdanek, Auschwitz, Soviet Union, Poland, Gestapo, death marches, Final Solution, racial antisemitism, cognitive model, Belzec, eliminationist
Buy this book
Amazon.com
Borrow this book
Find this book in a library
This groundbreaking international bestseller lays to rest many myths about the Holocaust: that Germans were ignorant of the mass destruction of Jews, that the killers were all SS men, and that those who slaughtered Jews did so reluctantly. Hitler's Willing Executioners provides conclusive evidence that the extermination of European Jewry engaged the energies and enthusiasm of tens of thousands of ordinary Germans. Goldhagen reconstructs the climate of "eliminationist anti-Semitism" that made Hitler's pursuit of his genocidal goals possible and the radical persecution of the Jews during the 1930s popular. Drawing on a wealth of unused archival materials, principally the testimony of the killers themselves, Goldhagen takes us into the killing fields where Germans voluntarily hunted Jews like animals, tortured them wantonly, and then posed cheerfully for snapshots with their victims. From mobile killing units, to the camps, to the death marches, Goldhagen shows how ordinary Germans, nurtured in a society where Jews were seen as unalterable evil and dangerous, willingly followed their beliefs to their logical conclusion."Hitler's Willing Executioner's is an original, indeed brilliant contribution to the...literature on the Holocaust."--New York Review of Books"The most important book ever published about the Holocaust...Eloquently written, meticulously documented, impassioned...A model of moral and scholarly integrity."--Philadelphia Inquirer
More details
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust
By Daniel Jonah Goldhagen
Edition: reprint, illustrated
Published by Vintage Books, 1997
ISBN 0679772685, 9780679772682
634 pages
Add to my shared library
Write review
Contents
Reconceiving Central Aspects of the Holocaust
3
Holocaust , antisemitism , Jews
UNDERSTANDING GERMAN ANTISEMITISM
25
cognitive models , dimensional analysis , semitism
The Evolution of Eliminationist Antisemitism
49
Jews , racial antisemitism , Jewish emancipation
20 other sections not shown
Search in this book
_OC_autoDir('search_form_input');
10 pages matching hitler,s holocaust in this book
Page 71
Where's the rest of this book?
Reviews
Reviewed May 2006
document.getElementById('review0_ti').className +=' pseudolink';
Wow - very intense book, I only read maybe 6 pages before crying then having nightmares. This book along with "Ordinary Men" is the focus of a paper as well as a quiz for class (I got 100%). the ... more » two authors battle back and forth in their respective afterwards.In a nutshell Browning feels that Germans killed because of peer pressure and felt pretty bad about it later. Goldburg feels that Germans killed because they wanted to, were given permission and didn't feel bad about it later. Both authors agreed that antisemitism played a part. Goldburg feels that it played a much bigger role than Browning does. both men also agreed that ordinary men and women did kill with little encouragement. The debate is healthy, an still waging in the Holocaust field of study and amongst Germans. A good argument can be made for each book. 7-2006 « less
SetTextSectionVisible('review0_h', 0)
User Review [Flag as inappropriate] View sgerbic's library
An explosive work that shatters many of ...
document.getElementById('review1_ti').className +=' pseudolink';
... the assumptions and commonly accepted myths concerning the Holocaust. Goldhagen (Government and Social Studies/Harvard) offers irrefutable proof that will force us to reconsider our previous ... more » understanding of the Nazis' genocidal project. Traditional explorations tended to accept at face value the usual defenses offered by the Germans: Either they did not know of the genocide or they were compelled to participate against their will. In this exhaustively documented and richly researched work, Goldhagen documents conclusively that the people who actively participated in the extermination program were indeed ""ordinary Germans,"" neither fanatical Nazis nor members of the dreaded SS. By carefully studying the personnel of the death camps and police battalions, the author reveals that they were not forced to participate, nor were they brainwashed by the Nazi regime. One of the book's many virtues is that it insists on placing antisemitism in a larger context; it permeated all segments of German society, including the proletariat, the professions, and the churches. Goldhagen thus offers a new conceptual framework for thinking about the Holocaust. Its documentation will make refutation nearly impossible. Further strengthening bis case, Goldhagen focuses on hitherto neglected aspects of the Holocaust: the police battalions and the death marches that occurred toward the end of the war. Both aspects support his thesis that the genocidal plans of the Nazis found an eagerly receptive audience in Germany. By comparing Nazi policies toward Jews, Slavs, and the infirm (the Euthanasia Program was denounced and resisted by the Germans), we can more clearly see and understand the enormity of the crime and the complicity of ""ordinary Germans."" A profoundly revolutionary work that demands a reexamination of the central moral problem of the 20th century. « less
SetTextSectionVisible('review1_h', 0)
Kirkus Reviews Copyright (c) VNU Business Media, Inc.
Was Slaughter of Jews Embraced by Germans? HITLER'S WILLING EXECUTIONERS Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust By Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. A basic question posed by students of the Holocaust has to do ...
nytimes.com
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - Review: Hitler's Willing Executioners ... Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). 622 pp. ...
jhu.edu
'Hitler's Willing Executioners': An Exchange - The New York Review ... An article by Gordon A. Craig from The New York Review of Books, May 23, 1996.
nybooks.commore »
Review -- 'Hitler's Willing Executioners' This World Wide Web site is the on-line version of the international student-produced magazine, AN END TO INTOLERANCE, for June 1997.
iearn.org
Goldhagen Review by Carl Schulkin. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. 622 pp. $30.00 ...
schulkin.org
H-Net Review: Carl Schulkin
h-net.org
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust Daniel Goldhagen Vintage Paperback, $16, 634 pp. James Scott of Yale set the tone o.
encyclopedia.com
Book Review: excerpt from Hitler's Willing Executioners from Goldhagen Reporting on alarming increase of anti-Semitism in Germany. How to guarantee religious and human rights for all Germans.
freedommag.org
Hitler's Willing Executioners (review) Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust , by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. New York: Knopf, 1996. x+622 pages. $30.00. ...
ihr.org« less
SetListSectionVisible('reviews_h', 0)
References from web pages
Hitler's Willing Executioners - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Jump to: navigation, search. Hitler's Willing Executioners (1996) is a history book by Daniel Goldhagen which posits ...en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler's_Willing_Executioners
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary ...190. Modern Judaism. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans. and the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). 622 pp. ...mj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/2/190.pdf
Vintage Catalog Hitler's Willing Executioners by Daniel Jonah ...... that follow are intended to enhance your group's reading of Daniel Jonah Goldhagen's Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. ...www.randomhouse.com/vintage/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=0679772685&view=rg
KONRAD KWIETKONRAD KWIET. “Hitler’s Willing Executioners” and “Ordinary Germans”. Some Comments on Goldhagen’s Ideas. 1. Much has been said about Daniel Jonah Goldhagen ...web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/01_kwiet.pdf
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust ...Hitlers Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust - Critical Essay from Commonweal in Reference provided free by Find Articlesfindarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_/ai_58400665more »
PEP Web - Hitler's Willing Executioners(1998). Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 46:650-653. Hitler's Willing Executioners. Barbara Stimmel Author Information ...www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=APA.046.0650A
JSTOR: Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the ...Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Pp. 619. Cloth $30.00. The dustjacket of Daniel Jonah ...links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0149-7952(199610)19%3A3%3C578%3AHWEOGA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
Aspects of the Goldhagen DebateAspects of the Goldhagen Debate. Central to this debate is Daniel Goldhagen’s work Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary ...www.aihgs.com/images/Goldhagen.pdf
An Examination of: Hitler's Willing Executioners; Ordinary Germans ...However, in Daniel Goldhagen's 1995 book Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, the author proposes that there is something ...www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/bat101/TietjenGoldhagenRev.htm
Robert Kunathintertitle.gif (2406 bytes) Volume 5.2 1997 ISSN 1048-3721 This page was last updated on 03/15/99. contents · Home · E-mail ...www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-2/kunath.html« less
SetListSectionVisible('web_references_h', 0)
References from books
Curriculum Development in the Postmodern Eraby Patrick Slattery - Education - 2006 - 330 pages
In this much-anticipated and thoroughly updated edition, noted curriculum studies scholar PatrickSlattery tackles these and other issues to reflect on the current state of...
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Introduction to International Relations: Theories and Approachesby Robert H. Jackson, Georg Sorensen - Political Science - 2007 - 376 pages
The book focuses on the main theoretical traditions - Realism, Liberalism, International Society, andtheories of international political economy.
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Framing Europe: Attitudes to European Integration in Germany, Spain, and the ...by Juan Díez Medrano - 2003 - 332 pages
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
show more »
Other editions
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945) - 1996 - 622 pages
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - History - 1996 - 622 pages
"--New York Review of Books"The most important book ever published about theHolocaust.
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaustby Daniel Jonah Goldhagen - History - 1997 - 634 pages
"--New York Review of Books "The most important book ever published about theHolocaust.
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References from scholarly works
Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration ofInhumanitiesAlbert Bandura - 1999 - Personality and Social Psychology Review
Toward a Theory of Teacher CommunityPamela Grossman, Samuel Wineburg And, Stephen Woolworth - 2001 - The Teachers College Record
The Political Economy of Hatred*Edward L Glaeser - 2005 - Quarterly Journal of Economics
Selective Moral Disengagement in the Exercise of Moral AgencyALBERT BANDURA - 2002 - Journal of Moral Education
Collective Memory and Cultural Constraint: Holocaust Myth and ...Jeffrey K Olick, Daniel Levy - 1997 - American Sociological Review
Key terms
Jozefow, Einsatzgruppen, genocidal, Holocaust, Helmbrechts, Nazism, Nazi Germany, Kristallnacht, Einsatzkommandos, Majdanek, Auschwitz, Soviet Union, Poland, Gestapo, death marches, Final Solution, racial antisemitism, cognitive model, Belzec, eliminationist
Hitler and the Holocaust
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Hitler and the Holocaust
By Robert S Wistrich
Published by Modern Library, 2001
ISBN 0679642226, 9780679642220
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Stephen Feinstein - Hitler and the Holocaust (review) - Shofar: An ... Hitler and the Holocaust is part of a new series of "Modern Library Chronicles" that features titles on significant subjects in history and conceptual ...
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HITLER AND THE HOLOCAUST - ROBERT S. WISTRICH Review Review on Hitler and the Holocaust - Robert S. Wistrich by happysandboy. User written consumer reviews, ratings, feature comparisons, photos of Book Title, ...
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Shofar: Hitler and the Holocaust.(Book Review) Hitler and the Holocaust is part of a new series of "Modern Library Chronicles" that features titles on significant subjects in history and conceptual ...
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goldlyrics.com - The Internet's Biggest Database Of Song Lyrics In Hitler and the Holocaust, part of the Modern Library Chronicles series, Robert S. Wistrich is less concerned with detailing the "what" and "how" of this ...
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References from web pages
Random House Trade Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert S. WistrichHitler and the Holocaust Robert S. Wistrich History - Holocaust; History - Military - World War II; History - Germany Modern Library Trade Paperback.www.randomhouse.com/randomhouse/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=0-8129-6863-8
Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert Wistrich - 9781842124864 ...Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert Wistrich Paperback book 1842124862 / 9781842124864 Orion Books.www.orionbooks.co.uk/MP-22307/Hitler-and-the-Holocaust.htm
Hitler and the Holocaust - Robert S. Wistrich - ISBN 9780812968637A short history of the cultural and political circumstances surrounding the genocide of the Jews. Wistrich looks closely at Anti-Semitism in Germany, ...www.longitudebooks.com/find/p/18789/mcms.html
ingentaconnect Hitler and the HolocaustHitler and the Holocaust. By Robert S. Wistrich. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. London. 2001. Pp. 322. £12.99. Document Type: Short communication ...www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oup/enghis/2002/00000117/00000474/art01383;jsessionid=8ca5c9kdh1ulg.alice?format=print
Butte County Library - Labeled DisplayTitle, Hitler and the Holocaust / Robert S. Wistrich. Author, Wistrich, Robert S., 1945-. Imprint, New York : Modern Library, 2001. ...library.buttecounty.net/TLCScripts/interpac.dll?LabelDisplay&LastResult=ItemTitles%26Config=pac%26FormId=-2%26Branch...more »
First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life ...Robert Wistrich's Hitler and the Holocaust starts out with great promise. The brevity of the text (240 pages, excluding notes) means that discussions are ...findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1882/is_200203/ai_n6829876/print
Brenau University... Israel," in Rethinking the Holocaust, 242-260 and Robert S. Wistrich, "Modernity and the Nazi Genocide," in Hitler and the Holocaust, 213-340, Reserve ...www.kennesaw.edu/paralleljourneys/doc/hist4490_s06.doc
Macquarie University Library - E-ReserveBook Chapter: Wistrich, Robert S. "Britain, America, and the Holocaust" in Hitler and the Holocaust , Wistrich, Robert S. , 2001 , 186-210 . ...www.lib.mq.edu.au/reserve/index.php?command=searchKeyword&keywords=hitler
ping http://metrics.apple.com/b/ss/applesuperglobal/1/G.6--NS?pccr ...... Holocaust Memorial Museum AUDIOBOOKS AUDIOBOOKS See All Hitler and the Holocaust (Unabridged) Robert S. Wistrich $23.95 listcolumns columninfo fieldid 2 ...phobos.apple.com/WebObjects/MZSearch.woa/wa/search?id=XmIFQ9rHzow&term=Hitler's+Holocaust
Remembering The HolocaustHitler and the Holocaust / Robert S. Wistrich. D804.3 .W469 2001. Hitler’s Willing Executioners : ordinary Germans and the Holocaust / Daniel. Goldhagen. ...www.acc.commnet.edu/LRC/documents/04-07Holocaust.pdf« less
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References from books
"Because He was a German!": Cardinal Bea and the Origins of Roman Catholic ...by Jerome M. Vereb - Biography & Autobiography - 2006 - 332 pages
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacyby Richard L. Rubenstein, John K. Roth - History - 2003 - 499 pages
This revised edition takes into account developments in this area since the original book waspublished.
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Other editions
Hitler and the Holocaust: A Short Historyby Robert S. Wistrich - History - 2001 - 295 pages
He explains the infernal workings of the death machine, the nature of Jewish and other resistance, andthe sad story of collaboration and indifference across Europe and America,...
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler and the Holocaustby Robert S. Wistrich - History - 2003 - 320 pages
The book concludes by considering the legacy of Nazi crimes since 1945: the Nuremburg trials, theimpact of the Holocaust on Diaspora Jewry (particularly in Israel and America),...
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler und der Holocaust: Kleine Weltgeschichte.by Robert S. Wistrich - 2003 - 414 pages
Includes bibliographical references (p. 337-390) and index.
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
show more »
References from scholarly works
Muck and Magic or Change and Progress: Vitalism versus Hamiltonian ...Thomas R Degregori - 2003 - Journal of Economic Issues
in terroremNicole Asquith
in terroremNicole Asquith - Journal of Sociology
MAKING THE UNDOABLE DOABLE Milgram, the Holocaust, and Modern ...NESTAR RUSSELL, ROBERT GREGORY - 2005 - The American Review of Public Administration
Det Armenske Folkemord i Danske KilderProblemformulering Afgrænsning, Struktur og Metode
Hitler and the Holocaust
By Robert S Wistrich
Published by Modern Library, 2001
ISBN 0679642226, 9780679642220
Add to my shared library
Write review
Reviews
Stephen Feinstein - Hitler and the Holocaust (review) - Shofar: An ... Hitler and the Holocaust is part of a new series of "Modern Library Chronicles" that features titles on significant subjects in history and conceptual ...
jhu.edu
HITLER AND THE HOLOCAUST - ROBERT S. WISTRICH Review Review on Hitler and the Holocaust - Robert S. Wistrich by happysandboy. User written consumer reviews, ratings, feature comparisons, photos of Book Title, ...
mouthshut.com
Shofar: Hitler and the Holocaust.(Book Review) Hitler and the Holocaust is part of a new series of "Modern Library Chronicles" that features titles on significant subjects in history and conceptual ...
findarticles.com
goldlyrics.com - The Internet's Biggest Database Of Song Lyrics In Hitler and the Holocaust, part of the Modern Library Chronicles series, Robert S. Wistrich is less concerned with detailing the "what" and "how" of this ...
goldlyrics.com
References from web pages
Random House Trade Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert S. WistrichHitler and the Holocaust Robert S. Wistrich History - Holocaust; History - Military - World War II; History - Germany Modern Library Trade Paperback.www.randomhouse.com/randomhouse/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=0-8129-6863-8
Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert Wistrich - 9781842124864 ...Hitler and the Holocaust by Robert Wistrich Paperback book 1842124862 / 9781842124864 Orion Books.www.orionbooks.co.uk/MP-22307/Hitler-and-the-Holocaust.htm
Hitler and the Holocaust - Robert S. Wistrich - ISBN 9780812968637A short history of the cultural and political circumstances surrounding the genocide of the Jews. Wistrich looks closely at Anti-Semitism in Germany, ...www.longitudebooks.com/find/p/18789/mcms.html
ingentaconnect Hitler and the HolocaustHitler and the Holocaust. By Robert S. Wistrich. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. London. 2001. Pp. 322. £12.99. Document Type: Short communication ...www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oup/enghis/2002/00000117/00000474/art01383;jsessionid=8ca5c9kdh1ulg.alice?format=print
Butte County Library - Labeled DisplayTitle, Hitler and the Holocaust / Robert S. Wistrich. Author, Wistrich, Robert S., 1945-. Imprint, New York : Modern Library, 2001. ...library.buttecounty.net/TLCScripts/interpac.dll?LabelDisplay&LastResult=ItemTitles%26Config=pac%26FormId=-2%26Branch...more »
First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life ...Robert Wistrich's Hitler and the Holocaust starts out with great promise. The brevity of the text (240 pages, excluding notes) means that discussions are ...findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1882/is_200203/ai_n6829876/print
Brenau University... Israel," in Rethinking the Holocaust, 242-260 and Robert S. Wistrich, "Modernity and the Nazi Genocide," in Hitler and the Holocaust, 213-340, Reserve ...www.kennesaw.edu/paralleljourneys/doc/hist4490_s06.doc
Macquarie University Library - E-ReserveBook Chapter: Wistrich, Robert S. "Britain, America, and the Holocaust" in Hitler and the Holocaust , Wistrich, Robert S. , 2001 , 186-210 . ...www.lib.mq.edu.au/reserve/index.php?command=searchKeyword&keywords=hitler
ping http://metrics.apple.com/b/ss/applesuperglobal/1/G.6--NS?pccr ...... Holocaust Memorial Museum AUDIOBOOKS AUDIOBOOKS See All Hitler and the Holocaust (Unabridged) Robert S. Wistrich $23.95 listcolumns columninfo fieldid 2 ...phobos.apple.com/WebObjects/MZSearch.woa/wa/search?id=XmIFQ9rHzow&term=Hitler's+Holocaust
Remembering The HolocaustHitler and the Holocaust / Robert S. Wistrich. D804.3 .W469 2001. Hitler’s Willing Executioners : ordinary Germans and the Holocaust / Daniel. Goldhagen. ...www.acc.commnet.edu/LRC/documents/04-07Holocaust.pdf« less
SetListSectionVisible('web_references_h', 0)
References from books
"Because He was a German!": Cardinal Bea and the Origins of Roman Catholic ...by Jerome M. Vereb - Biography & Autobiography - 2006 - 332 pages
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacyby Richard L. Rubenstein, John K. Roth - History - 2003 - 499 pages
This revised edition takes into account developments in this area since the original book waspublished.
Limited preview - About this book - Add to my shared library
Other editions
Hitler and the Holocaust: A Short Historyby Robert S. Wistrich - History - 2001 - 295 pages
He explains the infernal workings of the death machine, the nature of Jewish and other resistance, andthe sad story of collaboration and indifference across Europe and America,...
Snippet view - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler and the Holocaustby Robert S. Wistrich - History - 2003 - 320 pages
The book concludes by considering the legacy of Nazi crimes since 1945: the Nuremburg trials, theimpact of the Holocaust on Diaspora Jewry (particularly in Israel and America),...
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
Hitler und der Holocaust: Kleine Weltgeschichte.by Robert S. Wistrich - 2003 - 414 pages
Includes bibliographical references (p. 337-390) and index.
No preview available - About this book - Add to my shared library
show more »
References from scholarly works
Muck and Magic or Change and Progress: Vitalism versus Hamiltonian ...Thomas R Degregori - 2003 - Journal of Economic Issues
in terroremNicole Asquith
in terroremNicole Asquith - Journal of Sociology
MAKING THE UNDOABLE DOABLE Milgram, the Holocaust, and Modern ...NESTAR RUSSELL, ROBERT GREGORY - 2005 - The American Review of Public Administration
Det Armenske Folkemord i Danske KilderProblemformulering Afgrænsning, Struktur og Metode
Thursday, February 26, 2009
Ideology of National Socialism
Nazism was not some terrible accident which fell upon the German people out of a blue sky. One historian has called it the reductio ad absurdum of the German tradition of nationalism, militarism, worship of success, and force, as well as the exaltation of state. Yet the conditions which Hitler exploited were not confined to one country, although they were stronger in Germany than anywhere else. Adolf Hitler's own thought was a mixture of racism, anti-Marxism, and the idea of struggle (which we also found in Italian fascism). As an ideology, Hitler's National Socialism is a systematic interpretation of the world of human behavior and of history which aims at a unified outlook and behavior-pattern. Resembling a religion, an ideology demands commitment and faith.
As a form of government, National Socialism is totalitarian in character aiming at the total control of all politics, economy, social relationships and thought, by a small group which claims to understand how to cope with all aspects of human existence.
Origins of the Nazi Ideology
The National Socialist ideology contained several basic points: Antisemitism, nationalism, militarism, and anti-communism. Jews were racially alien to Europe and were supposed to be the source of all European troubles, especially Communis. Second, Germany should become the strongest country in Europe because Germans were racially superior to other Europeans and should lead everyone else, even against their will. Third, force was seen as the bottom line in all of nature and in human life. As such, the military spirit was the truest expression of human creativity, courage, self-sacrifice, and survival. Finally, Russian bolshevism threatened European civilization and should be destroyed sooner or later.
National Socialism developed after 1918 as a counter-movement to the Bolshevik revolution and the democratic parliamentary system. Its intellectual roots were haphazard and to some extent even tangled: Nietzsche's "will to power," the racial theories of Gobineau and Houston Chamberlain, the "faith in destiny" of Richard Wagner, Mendel's theory of heredity, Haushofer's "geo-politics," or the social-Darwinist conceptions of Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) were as much a part of the National Socialist ideology as the thought of Machiavelli, Fichte, Treitschke or Spengler.
Antisemitism in Theory
Antisemitism became the dominant element conceiving of Germanness as threatened by gradual disintegration through the Jewish race. Hitler called for the defense of "Blood and Soil" (Blut und Boden), the annihilation of the Jews and the strengthening of the Nordic race which was to rule over its "inferiors" as the "Master race". National Socialism emphasized the element of das Volk (the people as nation race), demanded unconditional surrender of the individual to the "community" (you are nothing, your people is everything), and preached a charismatic "faith in the leader" ("Führer, give the command, we shall follow"). It adopted impulse proceeding from the pre-First World War youth movement (romanticism of communal experience), glorified the comradeship of combat in war, and took on Communist and Fascist characteristics. The "movement" became a vortex for the discontented, who were disillusioned by parliamentary democracy and supported the demands of the NSDAP for autarchy in economic life, and expansionist foreign policy (Volk ohne Raum = a people without living space), liberation from the "bondage of the Versailles dictate", and the combating of Bolshevik tendencies.
Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century (1935)
Finally, the racial doctrine upon which this ideology rested in large part can be seen through the eyes of the party's "ideologist" - Alfred Rosenberg: Alfred Rosenberg discussed the relationship between the state and the "Volk" in his Myth of the Twentieth Century (1935):
The state is nowadays no longer an independent idol, before which everything must bow down; the state is not even an end but is only a means for the preservation of the "Volk".... Forms of the state change, and the laws of the state pass away; the folk remains. From this alone follows that the nation is the first and last, that to which everything else has to be subordinated.
The new thought puts folk and race higher than the state and its forms. It declares protection of the folk more important than protection of a religious denomination, a class, the monarchy, or the republic; it sees in treason against the folk a greater crime than high treason against the state.
No "Volk" of Europe is racially unified, including Germany. In accordance with the newest researches, we recognize five races, which exhibit noticeably different types. Now it is beyond question true that the Nordic race primarily has borne the genuine cultural fruits of Europe. The great heroes, artists, founders of states have come from this race.... Nordic blood created German life above all others. Even those sections, in which only a small part today is pure Nordic, have their basic stock from the Nordic race. Nordic is German and has functioned so as to shape the culture and human types of the westisch, dinarisch, and ostisch-Baltisch races. Also a type which is predominantly dinarisch has often been innerly formed in a Nordic mode. This emphasis on the Nordic race does not mean a sowing of "race-hatred" in Germany, but on the contrary, the conscious acknowledgment of a kind of racial cement within our nationality.
. . . On the day when Nordic blood should completely dry up, Germany would fall to ruin, would decline into a characterless chaos. That many forces are consciously working toward this, has been discussed in detail.
For this they rely primarily on the Alpine lower stratum, which, without any value of its own, has remained essentially superstitious and slavish despite all Germanization. Now that the external bond of the old idea of the Reich has fallen away, this blood is active, together with other bastard phenomena, in order to put itself in the service of a magic faith or in the service of the democratic chaos, which finds its herald in the parasitic but energetic Judaism.
The foundation for the arising of a new aristocracy lies in those men who have stood - in a spiritual, political, and military sense - in the foremost positions in the struggle for the coming Reich. It will appear thereby with inner necessity that up to 80 per cent of these men will also externally approach the Nordic type, since the fulfillment of the demanded values lies on a line with the highest values of this blood. With the others the inheritance, which exhibits itself in actions, outweighs personal appearance.
Europe's states have all been founded and preserved by the Nordic man. This Nordic man through alcohol, the World War, and Marxism has partially degenerated, partially been uprooted.... In order to preserve Europe, the Nordic energies of Europe must first be revitalized, strengthened. That means then Germany, Scandinavia with Finland, and England.
. . . Nordic Europe is the fated future, with a German central Europe. Germany as racial and national state, as central power of the continent, safe-guarding the south and southeast; the Scandinavian states with Finland as a second group, safe-guarding the northeast; and Great Britain, safe-guarding the west and overseas at those places where required in the interest of the Nordic Man. (7)
Nazi Party Organization Book (1940)The following extracts are taken from the Nazi Party Organization Book (1940) and illustrate the duties of party members, as well as the National Socialist concept of the State:
6. Duties of the Party Comrade The National Socialist commandments: The Führer is always right! Never go against discipline! Don't waste your time in idle chatter or in self-satisfying criticism, but take hold and do your work! Be proud but not arrogant! Let the program be your dogma. It demands of you the greatest devotion to the movement. You are a representative of the party; control your bearing and your manner accordingly! Let loyalty and unselfishness be your highest precepts! Practice true comradeship and you will be a true socialist! Treat your racial comrades as you wish to be treated by them! In battle be hard and silent! Spirit is not unruliness! That which promotes the movement, Germany, and your people, is right! If you act according to these commandments, you are a true soldier of your Führer.
7. Guiding Principles for Members of the Ortsgruppen [local groups] The following guiding principles are to be made known to all members, and all men and women of the party should impress them upon themselves: Lighten the work of the political leaders by the punctual performance of your duties. Women of the party should participate in the activities of the NS Association of Women there they will find work to do. Don't buy from Jews! Spare the health of the party comrades and speakers and refrain voluntarily from smoking at the meetings. Don't make yourself a mouthpiece for our political opponents by spreading false reports. To be a National Socialist is to set an example.
I. The StateThe state is born out of the necessity of ordering the community of the Volk in accordance with certain laws. Its characteristic attribute is power over every branch of the community. The state has the right to demand of every racial comrade [Volksgenosse] that he live according to the law. Whoever violates the laws of the state will be punished. The state has officials to execute its laws and regulations. The constitution of the state is the basis for its legislation. The state embodies power! In the state men of different opinions and different outlook can live beside each other. The state cannot demand that all men be of the same opinion. It can, however, demand that all men observe its laws.
II. The PartyIn contrast to the state, the party is the community of men of like opinion. It is born out of the struggle for an ideology. In order to survive this struggle, it gathered together all men who were prepared to fight for this ideology. The ideology is the basis of the order in accordance with which men live within the party. While in the state laws are considered as pressure, obstacles, and difficulties by many citizens, the laws of the party are no burden but rather signify the will of the community. In the state the characteristic is the must; in the party the I will.
III. The Functions of the Party and the State(a) It is conceivable that party and state are one and the same thing. This is the case when all racial comrades are converted to the ideology of the party and the laws of the state are the clear expression of the will of the ideology. Then the state becomes the great community of men of like opinion. This ideal situation will only seldom be attained in history. It is, in fact, only conceivable if this ideology is the only basis for the inner attitude and takes complete possession of the people....
(c) If the Volk in all its branches is not impregnated by the party and its ideology, party and state must remain separated. The party will then be an order in which a select group of leaders and fighters is found. The ideology will be carried to the Volk by these fighters. The party shall prepare public opinion and public desire so that the spiritual condition of the Volk shall be in accord with the actual legislation of the state.
Therefore it does not suffice for the party to be an elite, a minority which is bound together in unity. The party has rather the task of accomplishing the political education and the political unification of the German Volk. It accordingly is charged also with the leadership of its associated organizations. In the course of this leadership the party fulfills its primary task: the ideological conquest of the German Volk and the creation of the "Organization of the Volk." The state is a technical instrument to assist in the creation of this community of the people. It is the instrument for the realization of the ideology. The party is, therefore, the primary which constantly refills dead material with life and the will to life....
The state administrative apparatus functioned before the war and functioned also after the war. Notwithstanding, the German Volk experienced the Black Day of November 9, 1918; notwithstanding, it experienced the terrible collapse of the post war period in all fields of political, cultural, and economic life. Germany could only be saved from sinking into Communistic chaos through the spirit, will, and readiness to sacrifice of the German freedom movement. Its forces of will and spirit alone made reconstruction possible. The party now has the right and the task of again pumping streams of its spirit and will into the state apparatus. (8)
The Creation of the Nazi Dictatorship, 1933-1939
Phase One, 1933-1934Nazi domestic policy can be broken into three phases beginning with 1933-34. During these years, Hitler consolidated his authority through the destruction of all other political parties, "coordination" of all aspects of German life, and the liquidation of dissent among Nazis and conservatives. After taking office as chancellor, Hitler quickly out maneuvered Papen and the conservative nationalists.
The Reichstag Fire, February 1933
A new Reichstag election was scheduled for early March 1933. Only a few days before the election, on February 27, the Reichstag building was partially destroyed by fire. The Nazis may well have set the blaze, but they blamed the Communists, charging that the Communists were plotting to seize power. Hitler convinced Hindenburg to take strong action against the supposed Communist threat, and the president suspended freedom of speech and the press and other civil liberties.
March 1933 Election
The Nazis stepped up their harassment of their political opponents, and the March 5 election was held in an atmosphere of fear and intimidation. Polling 44 percent of the votes, the Nazis won 288 seats in the Reichstag. With the support of their conservative nationalist allies, who held 52 seats, the Nazis controlled a majority of the 647 member Reichstag. The Nazi majority was even more substantial, since none of the 81 Communist deputies were allowed to take their seats.
The Enabling Act, March 1933
On March 23, 1933, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which gave dictatorial authority to Hitler's cabinet for four years. Armed with full powers, Hitler moved to eliminate all possible centers of opposition. His policy is known as Gleichschaltung, which translates literally as coordination. In this context, however, it meant more precisely subordination, that is, subordinating all independent institutions to the authority of Hitler and the Nazi Party.
It was the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933, which in a legal way conferred dictatorial powers on Adolf Hitler. Only 94 Social Democratic votes were cast against it. The date for its abrogation (see Article 5) was never kept. Indeed, the Enabling Act is the last measure which the Reichstag passed under the republican and democratic Constitution of the Republic. It spelled its end and the beginning of National Socialist dictatorship.
Article 1. Laws of the Reich can also be promulgated by the Reich government apart from the method prescribed by the Constitution.
Article 2. Laws decided upon by the government of the Reich can depart from the Constitution of the Reich, in so far as they do not touch the existence as such, of such institutions as the Reichstag and the Reichsrat. The rights of the Reichspresident remain untouched....
Article 4. Treaties of the Reich with foreign powers which have reference to matters concerning the laws of the Reich, do not need the consent of the bodies which had part in the making of such laws, as long as this present law is valid.
Article 5. This law is in force on the day of its promulgation. It is abrogated on April 1, 1937; it is further abrogated if the present government of the Reich is replaced by another. (9)
Consolidation of Nazi Power
In April 1933, the government abolished self-government in the German states by appointing governors responsible to the central government in Berlin. The states lost even more power in January 1934 when the Reichsrat, the upper house of the parliament, was abolished. The Reichsrat had represented the states.
In May 1933, the Nazis ordered the abolition of the independent labor unions. Both strikes and lockouts were prohibited, and a system of compulsory arbitration of labor-management disputes was established. All workers were compelled to join the German Labor Front, an agency of the Nazi Party, which was designed primarily to promote labor discipline rather than the interests of the workers.
During the spring of 1933, the Nazis moved to eliminate opposition political parties. In July, the Nazi Party became the only legal party.
Almost a year later, on June 30, 1934, Hitler carried out a purge that took the lives of a number of dissident Nazi leaders and other opponents. The exact number of victims has never been determined, although it probably exceeded one hundred. Ernst Röhm, the SA leader, was among these victims. The influence of the SA now declined, while that of Himmler's SS, which provided the executioners for the purge, increased. Himmler also controlled the Gestapo, the secret police created by the Nazis.
Following the death of President Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, Hitler abolished the office of president and assumed the president's powers. The members of the armed forces were now required to take an oath of allegiance to Hitler. This oath represented an important step in the establishment of Hitler's control over Germany's armed forces.
Nazi Anti-Semitism: Practice
Soon after taking power in 1933, the Nazis began a campaign directed against Germany's Jews, who numbered some 600,000, about 1 percent of the population. In April 1933, Jews were deprived of their positions in the civil service. Jews were also barred from the universities, and restrictions were imposed on Jewish physicians and lawyers. The Nazis organized a nationwide boycott of shops and other businesses owned by Jews.
Phase Two, 1935-1937Phase two (1935-1937) focused on the militarization and conversion of all Germans to enthusiastic support of National Socialism.
The Nuremberg Laws, 1935
The campaign against the Jews was intensified following the adoption of the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. These laws defined a Jew as any person with at least one Jewish grandparent. Some 2.5 million Germans, in addition to the 600,000 who regarded themselves as Jews, were affected by this definition. The Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of their rights as citizens, and Jews were barred from marrying non-Jews.
Phase Three, 1937-1939Finally, phase three (1935-1939) was characterized by rapid, bloodless diplomatic and military strokes to win applause at home while liquidating opposition elements in the military and churches.
Crystal Night, 1938
In 1938, a Polish Jew assassinated a German diplomat in Paris. In response, the Nazis organized a campaign of mob violence known as the Crystal Night, which gained its name from the broken glass resulting from the destruction of synagogues and Jewish-owned businesses. Jews were now forced to wear a yellow star of David, and the German Jewish community was compelled to pay a large indemnity.
These measures against the Jews of Germany served as a prelude to the Holocaust of World War II, when the Nazis embarked on a campaign to exterminate the Jews of Europe.
The Nazis and the Christian ChurchesThe failure of German Christians, both Catholics and Protestants, to offer vigorous resistance to the crimes of the Nazis in general and to their persecution of the Jews, in particular, has been the subject of much historical controversy. Nevertheless, for German Christians the Nazi era was a time of pressure and persecution.
The Evangelical Church
The Nazis attempted to subordinate the Christian churches to their control. The major Protestant denomination, the German Evangelical Church, was forced to accept the direction of a handpicked national bishop. Dissenting Protestants established the Confessing Church under the leadership of Pastor Martin Niemöller (1892-1984). He and other dissident churchmen were imprisoned in concentration camps.
The Catholic Church
In July 1933, the Nazi regime signed a concordat with the Vatican, pledging to maintain the traditional rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. Increasing violations of the concordat led to protests from Catholic leaders. In 1937, Pope Pius XI (r. 1922-1939) joined these protests, issuing the encyclical letter Mit Brennender Sorge ("With Burning Concern"). For the most part, however, both Protestant and Catholic leaders sought to avoid direct confrontations with the Nazi regime.
Nazi Economic PolicyNazi regimentation extended to the economic sphere, although the property and profits of the capitalists were protected. In practical terms, the word "socialist" in the name of the Nazi Party did not refer to the nationalization of the means of production but rather to requiring the economy to serve the interests of the state. Hitler succeeded in reducing unemployment by initiating public works projects, including the construction of superhighways (autobahns), and establishing the Labor Service to provide jobs for young workers who could not find employment in the private sector. In 1936, the Four Year Plan was launched with the purpose of promoting economic self-sufficiency and of mobilizing the economy for war.
Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1935National Socialist foreign policy objective: revision of the Versailles Treaty as a preliminary to the conquest of additional living-space. Though Hitler pledged German will to preserve the peace, he rejected the policy of collective security and advocated bilateral agreements.
Summary of Hitler's Rise to PowerThe Great Depression of the early 1930's resulted in the economic and political collapse of the Weimar Republic, Germany's post-World War I experiment in democracy. Adolf Hitler demonstrated his political skill in taking advantage of the opportunity provided by the depression. He developed his Nazi Party into a mass movement and used a combination of his popular support and behind-the-scenes intrigue to propel himself into power. Once he gained office, Hitler moved with ruthless determination to crush his opponents and establish his totalitarian dictatorship. Furthermore, National Socialism showed how a modern "civilized" country could fall to fascism as well as Communism. It created virtual certainty of war in Europe owing to misjudgment of the situation by opponents. Third, it demonstrated that a modern dictatorship is hard to wipe out without war. Owing to his attack on the Soviet Union, Hitler's Germany pushed America and Britain into an alliance with Stalin. Finally, by Antisemitism culminating in Holocaust, National Socialism highlighted its own genocide policies while reinvigorating Zionism.
Hitler Launches the War, September 1939Hitler ordered the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938. Hitler's army invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, sparking France and England to declare war on Germany. A Blitzkrieg (lightning war) of German tanks and infantry swept through most of Western Europe as nation after nation fell to the German war machine.
In 1941, Hitler ignored a non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in August 1939. Several early victories after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, were reversed with crushing defeats at Moscow (December 1941) and Stalingrad (winter, 1942-43). The United States entered the war in December 1941. By 1944, the Allies invaded occupied Europe at Normandy Beach on the French coast, German cities were being destroyed by bombing, and Italy, Germany's major ally under the leadership of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, had fallen.
Internet Resourceshttp://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/riseofhitler/index.htm http://www.hitler-speeches.com/ http://www.dhm.de/ausstellungen/bildzeug/panoramen/
Endnotes1. Nürnberg, September 1, 1933; Völkischer Beobachter, September 2, 1933. 2. Munich, May 1, 1923; Völkischer Beobachter, May 3, 1923. 3. Berlin, January 30, 1942; B.B.C. 4. Berlin, May 10, 1933; Völkischer Beobachter, May 11, 1933. 5. Kulmbach, February 5, 1928; Völkischer Beobachter, February 9, 1928. 6. Munich, May 23, 1926; Völkischer Beobachter, May 26, 1926. 7. National Socialism (Washington United States Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 176-77. 8. National Socialism (Washington United States Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 195-198. 9. Ernst Forsthoff, Deutsche geschichte seit 1918 in Dokumenten (Stuttgart, 1938), pp. 289-90. (Trans. George L. Mosse.)
© 2000 by David A. Meier
As a form of government, National Socialism is totalitarian in character aiming at the total control of all politics, economy, social relationships and thought, by a small group which claims to understand how to cope with all aspects of human existence.
Origins of the Nazi Ideology
The National Socialist ideology contained several basic points: Antisemitism, nationalism, militarism, and anti-communism. Jews were racially alien to Europe and were supposed to be the source of all European troubles, especially Communis. Second, Germany should become the strongest country in Europe because Germans were racially superior to other Europeans and should lead everyone else, even against their will. Third, force was seen as the bottom line in all of nature and in human life. As such, the military spirit was the truest expression of human creativity, courage, self-sacrifice, and survival. Finally, Russian bolshevism threatened European civilization and should be destroyed sooner or later.
National Socialism developed after 1918 as a counter-movement to the Bolshevik revolution and the democratic parliamentary system. Its intellectual roots were haphazard and to some extent even tangled: Nietzsche's "will to power," the racial theories of Gobineau and Houston Chamberlain, the "faith in destiny" of Richard Wagner, Mendel's theory of heredity, Haushofer's "geo-politics," or the social-Darwinist conceptions of Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) were as much a part of the National Socialist ideology as the thought of Machiavelli, Fichte, Treitschke or Spengler.
Antisemitism in Theory
Antisemitism became the dominant element conceiving of Germanness as threatened by gradual disintegration through the Jewish race. Hitler called for the defense of "Blood and Soil" (Blut und Boden), the annihilation of the Jews and the strengthening of the Nordic race which was to rule over its "inferiors" as the "Master race". National Socialism emphasized the element of das Volk (the people as nation race), demanded unconditional surrender of the individual to the "community" (you are nothing, your people is everything), and preached a charismatic "faith in the leader" ("Führer, give the command, we shall follow"). It adopted impulse proceeding from the pre-First World War youth movement (romanticism of communal experience), glorified the comradeship of combat in war, and took on Communist and Fascist characteristics. The "movement" became a vortex for the discontented, who were disillusioned by parliamentary democracy and supported the demands of the NSDAP for autarchy in economic life, and expansionist foreign policy (Volk ohne Raum = a people without living space), liberation from the "bondage of the Versailles dictate", and the combating of Bolshevik tendencies.
Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century (1935)
Finally, the racial doctrine upon which this ideology rested in large part can be seen through the eyes of the party's "ideologist" - Alfred Rosenberg: Alfred Rosenberg discussed the relationship between the state and the "Volk" in his Myth of the Twentieth Century (1935):
The state is nowadays no longer an independent idol, before which everything must bow down; the state is not even an end but is only a means for the preservation of the "Volk".... Forms of the state change, and the laws of the state pass away; the folk remains. From this alone follows that the nation is the first and last, that to which everything else has to be subordinated.
The new thought puts folk and race higher than the state and its forms. It declares protection of the folk more important than protection of a religious denomination, a class, the monarchy, or the republic; it sees in treason against the folk a greater crime than high treason against the state.
No "Volk" of Europe is racially unified, including Germany. In accordance with the newest researches, we recognize five races, which exhibit noticeably different types. Now it is beyond question true that the Nordic race primarily has borne the genuine cultural fruits of Europe. The great heroes, artists, founders of states have come from this race.... Nordic blood created German life above all others. Even those sections, in which only a small part today is pure Nordic, have their basic stock from the Nordic race. Nordic is German and has functioned so as to shape the culture and human types of the westisch, dinarisch, and ostisch-Baltisch races. Also a type which is predominantly dinarisch has often been innerly formed in a Nordic mode. This emphasis on the Nordic race does not mean a sowing of "race-hatred" in Germany, but on the contrary, the conscious acknowledgment of a kind of racial cement within our nationality.
. . . On the day when Nordic blood should completely dry up, Germany would fall to ruin, would decline into a characterless chaos. That many forces are consciously working toward this, has been discussed in detail.
For this they rely primarily on the Alpine lower stratum, which, without any value of its own, has remained essentially superstitious and slavish despite all Germanization. Now that the external bond of the old idea of the Reich has fallen away, this blood is active, together with other bastard phenomena, in order to put itself in the service of a magic faith or in the service of the democratic chaos, which finds its herald in the parasitic but energetic Judaism.
The foundation for the arising of a new aristocracy lies in those men who have stood - in a spiritual, political, and military sense - in the foremost positions in the struggle for the coming Reich. It will appear thereby with inner necessity that up to 80 per cent of these men will also externally approach the Nordic type, since the fulfillment of the demanded values lies on a line with the highest values of this blood. With the others the inheritance, which exhibits itself in actions, outweighs personal appearance.
Europe's states have all been founded and preserved by the Nordic man. This Nordic man through alcohol, the World War, and Marxism has partially degenerated, partially been uprooted.... In order to preserve Europe, the Nordic energies of Europe must first be revitalized, strengthened. That means then Germany, Scandinavia with Finland, and England.
. . . Nordic Europe is the fated future, with a German central Europe. Germany as racial and national state, as central power of the continent, safe-guarding the south and southeast; the Scandinavian states with Finland as a second group, safe-guarding the northeast; and Great Britain, safe-guarding the west and overseas at those places where required in the interest of the Nordic Man. (7)
Nazi Party Organization Book (1940)The following extracts are taken from the Nazi Party Organization Book (1940) and illustrate the duties of party members, as well as the National Socialist concept of the State:
6. Duties of the Party Comrade The National Socialist commandments: The Führer is always right! Never go against discipline! Don't waste your time in idle chatter or in self-satisfying criticism, but take hold and do your work! Be proud but not arrogant! Let the program be your dogma. It demands of you the greatest devotion to the movement. You are a representative of the party; control your bearing and your manner accordingly! Let loyalty and unselfishness be your highest precepts! Practice true comradeship and you will be a true socialist! Treat your racial comrades as you wish to be treated by them! In battle be hard and silent! Spirit is not unruliness! That which promotes the movement, Germany, and your people, is right! If you act according to these commandments, you are a true soldier of your Führer.
7. Guiding Principles for Members of the Ortsgruppen [local groups] The following guiding principles are to be made known to all members, and all men and women of the party should impress them upon themselves: Lighten the work of the political leaders by the punctual performance of your duties. Women of the party should participate in the activities of the NS Association of Women there they will find work to do. Don't buy from Jews! Spare the health of the party comrades and speakers and refrain voluntarily from smoking at the meetings. Don't make yourself a mouthpiece for our political opponents by spreading false reports. To be a National Socialist is to set an example.
I. The StateThe state is born out of the necessity of ordering the community of the Volk in accordance with certain laws. Its characteristic attribute is power over every branch of the community. The state has the right to demand of every racial comrade [Volksgenosse] that he live according to the law. Whoever violates the laws of the state will be punished. The state has officials to execute its laws and regulations. The constitution of the state is the basis for its legislation. The state embodies power! In the state men of different opinions and different outlook can live beside each other. The state cannot demand that all men be of the same opinion. It can, however, demand that all men observe its laws.
II. The PartyIn contrast to the state, the party is the community of men of like opinion. It is born out of the struggle for an ideology. In order to survive this struggle, it gathered together all men who were prepared to fight for this ideology. The ideology is the basis of the order in accordance with which men live within the party. While in the state laws are considered as pressure, obstacles, and difficulties by many citizens, the laws of the party are no burden but rather signify the will of the community. In the state the characteristic is the must; in the party the I will.
III. The Functions of the Party and the State(a) It is conceivable that party and state are one and the same thing. This is the case when all racial comrades are converted to the ideology of the party and the laws of the state are the clear expression of the will of the ideology. Then the state becomes the great community of men of like opinion. This ideal situation will only seldom be attained in history. It is, in fact, only conceivable if this ideology is the only basis for the inner attitude and takes complete possession of the people....
(c) If the Volk in all its branches is not impregnated by the party and its ideology, party and state must remain separated. The party will then be an order in which a select group of leaders and fighters is found. The ideology will be carried to the Volk by these fighters. The party shall prepare public opinion and public desire so that the spiritual condition of the Volk shall be in accord with the actual legislation of the state.
Therefore it does not suffice for the party to be an elite, a minority which is bound together in unity. The party has rather the task of accomplishing the political education and the political unification of the German Volk. It accordingly is charged also with the leadership of its associated organizations. In the course of this leadership the party fulfills its primary task: the ideological conquest of the German Volk and the creation of the "Organization of the Volk." The state is a technical instrument to assist in the creation of this community of the people. It is the instrument for the realization of the ideology. The party is, therefore, the primary which constantly refills dead material with life and the will to life....
The state administrative apparatus functioned before the war and functioned also after the war. Notwithstanding, the German Volk experienced the Black Day of November 9, 1918; notwithstanding, it experienced the terrible collapse of the post war period in all fields of political, cultural, and economic life. Germany could only be saved from sinking into Communistic chaos through the spirit, will, and readiness to sacrifice of the German freedom movement. Its forces of will and spirit alone made reconstruction possible. The party now has the right and the task of again pumping streams of its spirit and will into the state apparatus. (8)
The Creation of the Nazi Dictatorship, 1933-1939
Phase One, 1933-1934Nazi domestic policy can be broken into three phases beginning with 1933-34. During these years, Hitler consolidated his authority through the destruction of all other political parties, "coordination" of all aspects of German life, and the liquidation of dissent among Nazis and conservatives. After taking office as chancellor, Hitler quickly out maneuvered Papen and the conservative nationalists.
The Reichstag Fire, February 1933
A new Reichstag election was scheduled for early March 1933. Only a few days before the election, on February 27, the Reichstag building was partially destroyed by fire. The Nazis may well have set the blaze, but they blamed the Communists, charging that the Communists were plotting to seize power. Hitler convinced Hindenburg to take strong action against the supposed Communist threat, and the president suspended freedom of speech and the press and other civil liberties.
March 1933 Election
The Nazis stepped up their harassment of their political opponents, and the March 5 election was held in an atmosphere of fear and intimidation. Polling 44 percent of the votes, the Nazis won 288 seats in the Reichstag. With the support of their conservative nationalist allies, who held 52 seats, the Nazis controlled a majority of the 647 member Reichstag. The Nazi majority was even more substantial, since none of the 81 Communist deputies were allowed to take their seats.
The Enabling Act, March 1933
On March 23, 1933, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which gave dictatorial authority to Hitler's cabinet for four years. Armed with full powers, Hitler moved to eliminate all possible centers of opposition. His policy is known as Gleichschaltung, which translates literally as coordination. In this context, however, it meant more precisely subordination, that is, subordinating all independent institutions to the authority of Hitler and the Nazi Party.
It was the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933, which in a legal way conferred dictatorial powers on Adolf Hitler. Only 94 Social Democratic votes were cast against it. The date for its abrogation (see Article 5) was never kept. Indeed, the Enabling Act is the last measure which the Reichstag passed under the republican and democratic Constitution of the Republic. It spelled its end and the beginning of National Socialist dictatorship.
Article 1. Laws of the Reich can also be promulgated by the Reich government apart from the method prescribed by the Constitution.
Article 2. Laws decided upon by the government of the Reich can depart from the Constitution of the Reich, in so far as they do not touch the existence as such, of such institutions as the Reichstag and the Reichsrat. The rights of the Reichspresident remain untouched....
Article 4. Treaties of the Reich with foreign powers which have reference to matters concerning the laws of the Reich, do not need the consent of the bodies which had part in the making of such laws, as long as this present law is valid.
Article 5. This law is in force on the day of its promulgation. It is abrogated on April 1, 1937; it is further abrogated if the present government of the Reich is replaced by another. (9)
Consolidation of Nazi Power
In April 1933, the government abolished self-government in the German states by appointing governors responsible to the central government in Berlin. The states lost even more power in January 1934 when the Reichsrat, the upper house of the parliament, was abolished. The Reichsrat had represented the states.
In May 1933, the Nazis ordered the abolition of the independent labor unions. Both strikes and lockouts were prohibited, and a system of compulsory arbitration of labor-management disputes was established. All workers were compelled to join the German Labor Front, an agency of the Nazi Party, which was designed primarily to promote labor discipline rather than the interests of the workers.
During the spring of 1933, the Nazis moved to eliminate opposition political parties. In July, the Nazi Party became the only legal party.
Almost a year later, on June 30, 1934, Hitler carried out a purge that took the lives of a number of dissident Nazi leaders and other opponents. The exact number of victims has never been determined, although it probably exceeded one hundred. Ernst Röhm, the SA leader, was among these victims. The influence of the SA now declined, while that of Himmler's SS, which provided the executioners for the purge, increased. Himmler also controlled the Gestapo, the secret police created by the Nazis.
Following the death of President Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, Hitler abolished the office of president and assumed the president's powers. The members of the armed forces were now required to take an oath of allegiance to Hitler. This oath represented an important step in the establishment of Hitler's control over Germany's armed forces.
Nazi Anti-Semitism: Practice
Soon after taking power in 1933, the Nazis began a campaign directed against Germany's Jews, who numbered some 600,000, about 1 percent of the population. In April 1933, Jews were deprived of their positions in the civil service. Jews were also barred from the universities, and restrictions were imposed on Jewish physicians and lawyers. The Nazis organized a nationwide boycott of shops and other businesses owned by Jews.
Phase Two, 1935-1937Phase two (1935-1937) focused on the militarization and conversion of all Germans to enthusiastic support of National Socialism.
The Nuremberg Laws, 1935
The campaign against the Jews was intensified following the adoption of the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. These laws defined a Jew as any person with at least one Jewish grandparent. Some 2.5 million Germans, in addition to the 600,000 who regarded themselves as Jews, were affected by this definition. The Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of their rights as citizens, and Jews were barred from marrying non-Jews.
Phase Three, 1937-1939Finally, phase three (1935-1939) was characterized by rapid, bloodless diplomatic and military strokes to win applause at home while liquidating opposition elements in the military and churches.
Crystal Night, 1938
In 1938, a Polish Jew assassinated a German diplomat in Paris. In response, the Nazis organized a campaign of mob violence known as the Crystal Night, which gained its name from the broken glass resulting from the destruction of synagogues and Jewish-owned businesses. Jews were now forced to wear a yellow star of David, and the German Jewish community was compelled to pay a large indemnity.
These measures against the Jews of Germany served as a prelude to the Holocaust of World War II, when the Nazis embarked on a campaign to exterminate the Jews of Europe.
The Nazis and the Christian ChurchesThe failure of German Christians, both Catholics and Protestants, to offer vigorous resistance to the crimes of the Nazis in general and to their persecution of the Jews, in particular, has been the subject of much historical controversy. Nevertheless, for German Christians the Nazi era was a time of pressure and persecution.
The Evangelical Church
The Nazis attempted to subordinate the Christian churches to their control. The major Protestant denomination, the German Evangelical Church, was forced to accept the direction of a handpicked national bishop. Dissenting Protestants established the Confessing Church under the leadership of Pastor Martin Niemöller (1892-1984). He and other dissident churchmen were imprisoned in concentration camps.
The Catholic Church
In July 1933, the Nazi regime signed a concordat with the Vatican, pledging to maintain the traditional rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. Increasing violations of the concordat led to protests from Catholic leaders. In 1937, Pope Pius XI (r. 1922-1939) joined these protests, issuing the encyclical letter Mit Brennender Sorge ("With Burning Concern"). For the most part, however, both Protestant and Catholic leaders sought to avoid direct confrontations with the Nazi regime.
Nazi Economic PolicyNazi regimentation extended to the economic sphere, although the property and profits of the capitalists were protected. In practical terms, the word "socialist" in the name of the Nazi Party did not refer to the nationalization of the means of production but rather to requiring the economy to serve the interests of the state. Hitler succeeded in reducing unemployment by initiating public works projects, including the construction of superhighways (autobahns), and establishing the Labor Service to provide jobs for young workers who could not find employment in the private sector. In 1936, the Four Year Plan was launched with the purpose of promoting economic self-sufficiency and of mobilizing the economy for war.
Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1935National Socialist foreign policy objective: revision of the Versailles Treaty as a preliminary to the conquest of additional living-space. Though Hitler pledged German will to preserve the peace, he rejected the policy of collective security and advocated bilateral agreements.
Summary of Hitler's Rise to PowerThe Great Depression of the early 1930's resulted in the economic and political collapse of the Weimar Republic, Germany's post-World War I experiment in democracy. Adolf Hitler demonstrated his political skill in taking advantage of the opportunity provided by the depression. He developed his Nazi Party into a mass movement and used a combination of his popular support and behind-the-scenes intrigue to propel himself into power. Once he gained office, Hitler moved with ruthless determination to crush his opponents and establish his totalitarian dictatorship. Furthermore, National Socialism showed how a modern "civilized" country could fall to fascism as well as Communism. It created virtual certainty of war in Europe owing to misjudgment of the situation by opponents. Third, it demonstrated that a modern dictatorship is hard to wipe out without war. Owing to his attack on the Soviet Union, Hitler's Germany pushed America and Britain into an alliance with Stalin. Finally, by Antisemitism culminating in Holocaust, National Socialism highlighted its own genocide policies while reinvigorating Zionism.
Hitler Launches the War, September 1939Hitler ordered the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938. Hitler's army invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, sparking France and England to declare war on Germany. A Blitzkrieg (lightning war) of German tanks and infantry swept through most of Western Europe as nation after nation fell to the German war machine.
In 1941, Hitler ignored a non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in August 1939. Several early victories after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, were reversed with crushing defeats at Moscow (December 1941) and Stalingrad (winter, 1942-43). The United States entered the war in December 1941. By 1944, the Allies invaded occupied Europe at Normandy Beach on the French coast, German cities were being destroyed by bombing, and Italy, Germany's major ally under the leadership of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, had fallen.
Internet Resourceshttp://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/riseofhitler/index.htm http://www.hitler-speeches.com/ http://www.dhm.de/ausstellungen/bildzeug/panoramen/
Endnotes1. Nürnberg, September 1, 1933; Völkischer Beobachter, September 2, 1933. 2. Munich, May 1, 1923; Völkischer Beobachter, May 3, 1923. 3. Berlin, January 30, 1942; B.B.C. 4. Berlin, May 10, 1933; Völkischer Beobachter, May 11, 1933. 5. Kulmbach, February 5, 1928; Völkischer Beobachter, February 9, 1928. 6. Munich, May 23, 1926; Völkischer Beobachter, May 26, 1926. 7. National Socialism (Washington United States Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 176-77. 8. National Socialism (Washington United States Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 195-198. 9. Ernst Forsthoff, Deutsche geschichte seit 1918 in Dokumenten (Stuttgart, 1938), pp. 289-90. (Trans. George L. Mosse.)
© 2000 by David A. Meier
Hitler's Rise to Power
Once released from prison, Hitler decided to seize power constitutionally rather than by force of arms. Using demagogic oratory, Hitler spoke to scores of mass audiences, calling for the German people to resist the yoke of Jews and Communists, and to create a new empire which would rule the world for 1,000 years.
Seeking Electoral Success: 1924-1929In 1924, Hitler promptly reestablished the NSDAP in Munich. The party was organized according to the Führer principle: it was headed by the Führer, his deputy, and the national leadership with the Reichsleiter heading nation wide departments of the party. The regional political organization descended from the provincial level (Gau), to the county (Kreis), local district (Ortsgruppe), and cell (Zell) to the local bloc (Block). Party organizations, in part para-military, such as the SA (Brownshirt storm troopers), SS (Blackshirt storm troopers), HJ (Hitler Youth), and the BdM (League of German Girls), which were also organized according to the Führer principle, were closely linked to the party, as were the affiliated associations (DAF (German Workers' Front), NSV (National Socialist People's Welfare), and the professional organizations of physicians, teachers, lawyers, civil servants, etc.).
Rise to Power: 1930-1933
The Nazis gradually devised an electoral strategy to win northern farmers and white collar voters in small towns, which produced a landslide electoral victory in September 1930 (jump from roughly 3% to 18% of the votes cast) due to the depression. Refused a chance to form a cabinet, and unwilling to share in a coalition regime, the Nazis joined the Communists in violence and disorder between 1931 and 1933. In 1932, Hitler ran for President and won 30% of the vote, forcing the eventual victor, Paul von Hindenburg, into a runoff election. After a bigger landslide in July 1932 (44%), their vote declined and their movement weakened (Hitler lost the presidential election to WWI veteran Paul von Hindenburg in April; elections of November 1932 roughly 42%), so Hitler decided to enter a coalition government as chancellor in January 1933.
Upon the death of Hindenburg in August 1934, Hitler was the consensus successor. With an improving economy, Hitler claimed credit and consolidated his position as a dictator, having succeeded in eliminating challenges from other political parties and government institutions. The German industrial machine was built up in preparation for war. In November 1937, he was comfortable enough to call his top military aides together at the "Führer Conference," when he outlined his plans for a war of aggression in Europe. Those who objected to the plan were dismissed.
Nazi SupportersThe Nazis won their support primarily from the lower middle class and the peasantry. These voters were strongly nationalistic in their political views and feared that the depression would deprive them of their standard of living. In religion, most of the Nazis' supporters were Protestants. German Catholics remained firm in their support of the Catholic Center Party.
Attitude of WorkersMost of Germany's industrial workers continued to vote for the Social Democrats, which remained the largest party, with 143 seats in the Reichstag. However, many disgruntled industrial workers voted for the Communists, who elected 77 Reichstag deputies in place of the 54 elected in 1928.
Attitude of Big BusinessThere is little evidence to support the view that Hitler received substantial financial support from big business. The conservative upper classes generally regarded Hitler as an uneducated demagogue and gutter politician.
Hitler's Political ViewsHitler lived in Vienna for several years, working at odd jobs and absorbing the ideas of Austrian right-wing extremists. In 1913, he left Vienna and moved to Munich in southern Germany. He took with him the basic political ideas to which he would remain committed for the balance of his life. Central to Hitler's thought were his notions of race. He believed in the racial superiority of the Germanic peoples (the Aryan race) and in the inferiority of other races, especially Jews but also Slavs and blacks. Hitler also advocated the Pan-German ideology that was popular among many Austrian extremists. Pan-Germanism held the view that all Germans should be united in a single state. In addition, Hitler was hostile to the ideology of Marxism, which emphasized the unity of the international working class rather than racial solidarity.
The following extracts illustrate some of the political ideas of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945):
In that we deny the principle of parliamentary democracy we strike the strongest blow for the right of the nation to the self-determination of its own life. For in the parliamentary system we see no genuine expression of the nation's will--a will which cannot logically be anything else than a will to the maintenance of the nation--but we do see a distortion, if not a perversion, of that will. The will of a nation to the self-determination of its being manifests itself most clearly and is of most use when its most capable minds are brought forth. They form the representative leaders of a nation, they alone can be the pride of a nation--certainly never the parliamentary politician who is the product of the ballot box and thinks only in terms of votes. The constructive development of the future leadership of the nation through its most able men will take years; the intelligent education of the German people will take decades. (1)
Internationalism is weakness in the life of nations. What is there that is born of internationalism? Nothing. The real values of human culture were not born of internationalism, but they were created by the whole heritage and tradition of the people [das Volkstum]. When peoples no longer possess creative power they become international. Wherever there is weakness in regard to spiritual matters in the life of nations, internationalism makes its appearance. It is no coincidence that a people, namely the Jews, which does not have any real creative ability, is the carrier of this internationalism. It is the people with the least creative power and talent. It dominates only in the field of crooked and speculative economy. ... The Jew, as a race, has a remarkable instinct of self-preservation, but as an individual he has no cultural abilities at all. He is the demon of the disintegration of nations--the symbol of continual destruction of peoples. If the first of May, therefore, is to have any meaning in the life of peoples, it can be only a glorification of the national, creative idea as against the international idea of decay. (2)
I do not want even to speak of the Jews. They are simply our old enemies, their plans have suffered shipwreck through us, and they rightly hate us, just as we hate them. We realize that this war can end only either in the Wiping out of the Germanic nations, or by the disappearance of Jewry from Europe. On September 3rd I spoke in the Reichstag--and I dislike premature prophecies--and I said that this war would not end the way the Jews imagine, that is, in the extinction of the European Aryan nations, but that the result of this war would be the destruction of Jewry. For the first time, it will not be the others who will bleed to death, but for the first time the genuine ancient Jewish law, "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," is being applied. The more this struggle spreads, the more anti Semitism will spread--and world Jewry may rely on this. It will find nourishment in every prison camp, it will find nourishment in every family which is being enlightened as to why it is being called upon to make such sacrifices, and the hour will come when the worst enemy of the world, of all time, will have finished his part for at least one thousand years to come. (3)
For fourteen or fifteen years I have continually proclaimed to the German nation that I regard it as my task before posterity to destroy Marxism, and that is no empty phrase but a solemn oath which I shall follow as long as I live. I have made this confession of faith, the confession of faith of a single man, that of a mighty organization. I know now that even if fate were to remove me, the fight would be fought to the end; this movement is the guarantee for that. This for us is not a fight which can be finished by compromise. We see in Marxism the enemy of our people which we will root out and destroy without mercy.... We must then fight to the very end those tendencies which have eaten into the soul of the German nation in the last seventeen years, which have done us such incalculable damage and which, if they had not been vanquished, would have destroyed Germany. Bismarck told us that liberalism was the pace-maker of Social Democracy. I need not say here that Social Democracy is the pace-maker of Communism. And Communism is the forerunner of death, of national destruction, and extinction. We have joined battle with it and will fight it to the death. (4)
We are enemies of cowardly pacifism because we recognize that according to the laws of nature, struggle is the father of all things. We are enemies of democracy because we recognize that an individual genius represents at all times the best in his people and that he should be the leader. Numbers can never direct the destiny of a people. Only genius can do this. We are the deadly enemies of internationalism because nature teaches us that the purity of race and the authority of the leader alone are able to lead a nation to victory. (5)
. . . Thus I am standing for exactly the same principles that I stood for already a year ago. We are convinced that a final showdown will come in this fight against Marxism. We are convinced that it must come, for two Weltanschauungen are fighting each other and there can be only one outcome! One will be destroyed and the other will win.... It is the great mission of the National Socialist Movement, to give this epoch a new faith and to see to it that millions will swear by this faith, so that, when some day the hour for the showdown comes, the German people will not meet the Jewish international murderers completely unarmed. (6)
Seeking Electoral Success: 1924-1929In 1924, Hitler promptly reestablished the NSDAP in Munich. The party was organized according to the Führer principle: it was headed by the Führer, his deputy, and the national leadership with the Reichsleiter heading nation wide departments of the party. The regional political organization descended from the provincial level (Gau), to the county (Kreis), local district (Ortsgruppe), and cell (Zell) to the local bloc (Block). Party organizations, in part para-military, such as the SA (Brownshirt storm troopers), SS (Blackshirt storm troopers), HJ (Hitler Youth), and the BdM (League of German Girls), which were also organized according to the Führer principle, were closely linked to the party, as were the affiliated associations (DAF (German Workers' Front), NSV (National Socialist People's Welfare), and the professional organizations of physicians, teachers, lawyers, civil servants, etc.).
Rise to Power: 1930-1933
The Nazis gradually devised an electoral strategy to win northern farmers and white collar voters in small towns, which produced a landslide electoral victory in September 1930 (jump from roughly 3% to 18% of the votes cast) due to the depression. Refused a chance to form a cabinet, and unwilling to share in a coalition regime, the Nazis joined the Communists in violence and disorder between 1931 and 1933. In 1932, Hitler ran for President and won 30% of the vote, forcing the eventual victor, Paul von Hindenburg, into a runoff election. After a bigger landslide in July 1932 (44%), their vote declined and their movement weakened (Hitler lost the presidential election to WWI veteran Paul von Hindenburg in April; elections of November 1932 roughly 42%), so Hitler decided to enter a coalition government as chancellor in January 1933.
Upon the death of Hindenburg in August 1934, Hitler was the consensus successor. With an improving economy, Hitler claimed credit and consolidated his position as a dictator, having succeeded in eliminating challenges from other political parties and government institutions. The German industrial machine was built up in preparation for war. In November 1937, he was comfortable enough to call his top military aides together at the "Führer Conference," when he outlined his plans for a war of aggression in Europe. Those who objected to the plan were dismissed.
Nazi SupportersThe Nazis won their support primarily from the lower middle class and the peasantry. These voters were strongly nationalistic in their political views and feared that the depression would deprive them of their standard of living. In religion, most of the Nazis' supporters were Protestants. German Catholics remained firm in their support of the Catholic Center Party.
Attitude of WorkersMost of Germany's industrial workers continued to vote for the Social Democrats, which remained the largest party, with 143 seats in the Reichstag. However, many disgruntled industrial workers voted for the Communists, who elected 77 Reichstag deputies in place of the 54 elected in 1928.
Attitude of Big BusinessThere is little evidence to support the view that Hitler received substantial financial support from big business. The conservative upper classes generally regarded Hitler as an uneducated demagogue and gutter politician.
Hitler's Political ViewsHitler lived in Vienna for several years, working at odd jobs and absorbing the ideas of Austrian right-wing extremists. In 1913, he left Vienna and moved to Munich in southern Germany. He took with him the basic political ideas to which he would remain committed for the balance of his life. Central to Hitler's thought were his notions of race. He believed in the racial superiority of the Germanic peoples (the Aryan race) and in the inferiority of other races, especially Jews but also Slavs and blacks. Hitler also advocated the Pan-German ideology that was popular among many Austrian extremists. Pan-Germanism held the view that all Germans should be united in a single state. In addition, Hitler was hostile to the ideology of Marxism, which emphasized the unity of the international working class rather than racial solidarity.
The following extracts illustrate some of the political ideas of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945):
In that we deny the principle of parliamentary democracy we strike the strongest blow for the right of the nation to the self-determination of its own life. For in the parliamentary system we see no genuine expression of the nation's will--a will which cannot logically be anything else than a will to the maintenance of the nation--but we do see a distortion, if not a perversion, of that will. The will of a nation to the self-determination of its being manifests itself most clearly and is of most use when its most capable minds are brought forth. They form the representative leaders of a nation, they alone can be the pride of a nation--certainly never the parliamentary politician who is the product of the ballot box and thinks only in terms of votes. The constructive development of the future leadership of the nation through its most able men will take years; the intelligent education of the German people will take decades. (1)
Internationalism is weakness in the life of nations. What is there that is born of internationalism? Nothing. The real values of human culture were not born of internationalism, but they were created by the whole heritage and tradition of the people [das Volkstum]. When peoples no longer possess creative power they become international. Wherever there is weakness in regard to spiritual matters in the life of nations, internationalism makes its appearance. It is no coincidence that a people, namely the Jews, which does not have any real creative ability, is the carrier of this internationalism. It is the people with the least creative power and talent. It dominates only in the field of crooked and speculative economy. ... The Jew, as a race, has a remarkable instinct of self-preservation, but as an individual he has no cultural abilities at all. He is the demon of the disintegration of nations--the symbol of continual destruction of peoples. If the first of May, therefore, is to have any meaning in the life of peoples, it can be only a glorification of the national, creative idea as against the international idea of decay. (2)
I do not want even to speak of the Jews. They are simply our old enemies, their plans have suffered shipwreck through us, and they rightly hate us, just as we hate them. We realize that this war can end only either in the Wiping out of the Germanic nations, or by the disappearance of Jewry from Europe. On September 3rd I spoke in the Reichstag--and I dislike premature prophecies--and I said that this war would not end the way the Jews imagine, that is, in the extinction of the European Aryan nations, but that the result of this war would be the destruction of Jewry. For the first time, it will not be the others who will bleed to death, but for the first time the genuine ancient Jewish law, "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," is being applied. The more this struggle spreads, the more anti Semitism will spread--and world Jewry may rely on this. It will find nourishment in every prison camp, it will find nourishment in every family which is being enlightened as to why it is being called upon to make such sacrifices, and the hour will come when the worst enemy of the world, of all time, will have finished his part for at least one thousand years to come. (3)
For fourteen or fifteen years I have continually proclaimed to the German nation that I regard it as my task before posterity to destroy Marxism, and that is no empty phrase but a solemn oath which I shall follow as long as I live. I have made this confession of faith, the confession of faith of a single man, that of a mighty organization. I know now that even if fate were to remove me, the fight would be fought to the end; this movement is the guarantee for that. This for us is not a fight which can be finished by compromise. We see in Marxism the enemy of our people which we will root out and destroy without mercy.... We must then fight to the very end those tendencies which have eaten into the soul of the German nation in the last seventeen years, which have done us such incalculable damage and which, if they had not been vanquished, would have destroyed Germany. Bismarck told us that liberalism was the pace-maker of Social Democracy. I need not say here that Social Democracy is the pace-maker of Communism. And Communism is the forerunner of death, of national destruction, and extinction. We have joined battle with it and will fight it to the death. (4)
We are enemies of cowardly pacifism because we recognize that according to the laws of nature, struggle is the father of all things. We are enemies of democracy because we recognize that an individual genius represents at all times the best in his people and that he should be the leader. Numbers can never direct the destiny of a people. Only genius can do this. We are the deadly enemies of internationalism because nature teaches us that the purity of race and the authority of the leader alone are able to lead a nation to victory. (5)
. . . Thus I am standing for exactly the same principles that I stood for already a year ago. We are convinced that a final showdown will come in this fight against Marxism. We are convinced that it must come, for two Weltanschauungen are fighting each other and there can be only one outcome! One will be destroyed and the other will win.... It is the great mission of the National Socialist Movement, to give this epoch a new faith and to see to it that millions will swear by this faith, so that, when some day the hour for the showdown comes, the German people will not meet the Jewish international murderers completely unarmed. (6)
Hitler's Mein Kampf
Hitler served only eight months of his five-year term. While in prison, he wrote the first volume of Mein Kampf (2ed part was written in 1927-1927). It was partly an autobiographical book (although filled with glorified inaccuracies, self-serving half-truths and outright revisionism) which also detailed his views on the future of the German people. There were several targets of the vicious diatribes in the book, such as democrats, Communists, and internationalists. But he reserved the brunt of his vituperation for the Jews, whom he portrayed as responsible for all of the problems and evils of the world, particularly democracy, Communism, and internationalism, as well as Germany's defeat in the War. Jews were the German nation's true enemy, he wrote. They had no culture of their own, he asserted, but perverted existing cultures such as Germany's with their parasitism. As such, they were not a race, but an anti-race:
"[The Jews'] ultimate goal is the denaturalization, the promiscuous bastardization of other peoples, the lowering of the racial level of the highest peoples as well as the domination of his racial mishmash through the extirpation of the volkish intelligentsia and its replacement by the members of his own people," he wrote. On the contrary, the German people were of the highest racial purity and those destined to be the master race according to Hitler. To maintain that purity, it was necessary to avoid intermarriage with subhuman races such as Jews and Slavs.... Germany could stop the Jews from conquering the world only by eliminating them. By doing so, Germany could also find Lebensraum, living space, without which the superior German culture would decay. This living space, Hitler continued, would come from conquering Russia (which was under the control of Jewish Marxists, he believed) and the Slavic countries. This empire would be launched after democracy was eliminated and a "Führer" called upon to rebuild the German Reich."
A second volume of Mein Kampf was published in 1927. It included a history of the Nazi party to that time and its program, as well as a primer on how to obtain and retain political power, how to use propaganda and terrorism, and how to build a political organization. While Mein Kampf was crudely written and filled with embarrassing tangents and ramblings, it struck a responsive chord among its target and those Germans who believed it was their destiny to dominate Europe. The book sold over five million copies by the start of World War II.
"[The Jews'] ultimate goal is the denaturalization, the promiscuous bastardization of other peoples, the lowering of the racial level of the highest peoples as well as the domination of his racial mishmash through the extirpation of the volkish intelligentsia and its replacement by the members of his own people," he wrote. On the contrary, the German people were of the highest racial purity and those destined to be the master race according to Hitler. To maintain that purity, it was necessary to avoid intermarriage with subhuman races such as Jews and Slavs.... Germany could stop the Jews from conquering the world only by eliminating them. By doing so, Germany could also find Lebensraum, living space, without which the superior German culture would decay. This living space, Hitler continued, would come from conquering Russia (which was under the control of Jewish Marxists, he believed) and the Slavic countries. This empire would be launched after democracy was eliminated and a "Führer" called upon to rebuild the German Reich."
A second volume of Mein Kampf was published in 1927. It included a history of the Nazi party to that time and its program, as well as a primer on how to obtain and retain political power, how to use propaganda and terrorism, and how to build a political organization. While Mein Kampf was crudely written and filled with embarrassing tangents and ramblings, it struck a responsive chord among its target and those Germans who believed it was their destiny to dominate Europe. The book sold over five million copies by the start of World War II.
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